Skip to main content
Download PDF
  • Marine Ecology: Political, Economic and Environmental Implications
  • Published:

The implications of the precautionary principle for biological monitoring

Helgoländer Meeresuntersuchungen volume 49, pages 647–662 (1995)Cite this article

Abstract

Marine biological monitoring programmes frequently attempt to determine “safe” levels of contamination, based on assumptions about the assimilative capacity of the environment. This paper argues that such assumptions lack scientific rigour, and do not form the basis upon which a precautionary policy can be built. It notes the problems associated with assessing toxicological effects, but centres its attention on the crucial (yet far less discussed) weaknesses in theoretical ecology that make it extremely unlikely that biological monitoring can determine safe levels of contamination that leave ecosystems unaffected. It is argued that many marine biologists, if pressed, would concede these shortcomings but believe that, in the face of the technical difficulties and high costs of pollution prevention, we have no choice but to use such methods. This paper argues, with examples, that pollution prevention, often with considerable economic savings, is becoming a reality for even the most problematic substances. The difficulty is that the development of “clean production” methods lie outside the sphere of interest of those carrying out monitoring, so that measures that attempt to determine safe levels of contamination continue to be advocated. This gulf needs to be bridged so that the continuation of monitoring programmes that are part of dilute and disperse policies become regarded as inappropriate, indeed unethical. The paper concludes that this does not mean the end of marine monitoring. Instead, reliable methods for assessing physical levels of contamination will be required to determine whether the reduction targets set—as part of the introduction of clean production—are being met. Formidable difficulties will remain, requiring a precautious approach. Nevertheless, monitoring will no longer carry the burden of attempting to demonstrate that a particular level of environmental contamination is safe, which is currently destroying its scientific credibility.

Literature Cited

  • Ad hoc group of experts on annexes to LDC Convention (Ed.), 1992. Report of the 4th meeting. (LDC/SG 15/2 Annex) LDC Secretariat, London.

  • Baas, L., Hofman, H., Huisingh, D., Huisingh, J., Koppert, P. & Neumann, F., 1990. Protection of the North Sea: time for clean production. Erasmus Centre for Environmental Studies, Erasmus Univ., Rotterdam, 79 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Backman, M., Huisingh, D., Persson, E. & Siljebratte, L., 1991. Preventative environmental protection strategy: first results of an experiment in Landskrona, Sweden. In: Prepare. Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Amsterdam, 2B, 113–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birkeland, C., 1974. Interaction between a sea pen and seven of its predators.—Ecol. Monogr.44, 211–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bundesminister für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit (Hrsg.), 1992. Alternatives to organohalogens. bundesminister für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit, Bonn, 200 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cadée, G. C., 1990. Increase ofPhaeocystis blooms in the westernmost inlet of the Wadden Sea, the Marsdiep, since 1973. In: Eutrophication and algal blooms in North Sea coastal zones, the Baltic and adjoining areas: prediction and assessment of preventive actions. Ed. by C. Lancelot, G. Billen & H. Barth. Commission of the European Communities, Brussels, 105–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caughley, G. & Lawton, J. H., 1981. Plant-herbivore systems. In: Theoretical ecology. Ed. by R. M. May. Blackwell, Oxford, 132–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christiansen, K. & Kryger, J., 1989. Promotion and implementation of cleaner technologies in Danish industries. Centre for Cleaner Technologies, Technological Institute of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 29 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, A. G., Madariaga, I. de, Bautista, B., Fernández, E., Harbour, D. S., Serret, P. & Tranter P. R. G., 1992. The ecology of a coastalPhaeocystis bloom in the north-western English Channel in 1990.—J. mar. biol. Ass. U. K.72, 691–708.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dayton, P. K., 1984. Processes structuring some marine communities: Are they general? In: Ecological communities: conceptual issues and the evidence. Ed. by D. R. Strong, D. Simberloff, L. G. Abele & A. B. Thistle. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, 181–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dayton, P. K., Robilliard, G. A., Paine, R. T. & Dayton, L. B., 1974. Biological accommodation in the benthic community at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica.—Ecol. Monogr.44, 105–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickson, R. R. (Ed.) 1987. Irish Sea status report of the marine pollution monitoring group.—Aquat. environ. Monit. Rep.17, 7–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dieleman, H., Berkel, R. van, Reijenga, F., Hoo, S. de, Brezet, H., Cramer, J. & Schot, J., 1991. Choosing for prevention is winning. In: Prepare. Part IIA: Experiences. Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Amsterdam, 2A, 1–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisma, D. & Irion, G., 1988. Sediment matter and sediment transport. In: Pollution of the North Sea. Ed. by W. Salomons B. L. Bayne, E. K. Duursma & U. Förstner. Springer, Berlin, 20–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, W., 1990. Towards a transpersonal ecology. Shambhala, Boston, 380 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaines, S. & Roughgarden, J., 1985. Larval settlement rate: a leading determinant of structure in an ecological community of the marine intertidal zone.—Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.82, 3707–3711.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerlach, S., 1988. Nutrients—an overview. In: Environmental protection of the North Sea. Ed. by P. J. Newmann & A. R. Agg. Heinemann, Oxford, 147–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Godfray, H. C. J. & Blyth, S. P., 1990. Complex dynamics in multispecies communities.—Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (Ser. B)330, 221–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunkel, W., 1994. 100 years of the Biologische Anstalt Helgoland: a cliff in the North Sea steeped in the tides and currents of history.—Helgoländer Meeresunters.49, 69–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, F. C., 1994. Trophic interactions between zooplankton andPhaeocystis.—Helgoländer Meeresunters.49, 281–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harcourt, D. G., 1971. Population dynamics ofLeptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) in eastern Ontario. III. Major population processes.—Can. Ent.103, 1049–1061.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hargrove, E. C., 1987. Problems and prospects.—Environ. Ethics9, 195–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hassell, M. P., 1981. Arthropod predator-prey systems. In: Theoretical ecology. Ed. by R. M. May. Blackwell, Oxford, 105–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoo, S. de, Brezet, H., Crul, M. & Dieleman, H. (Eds), 1991. Manual for the prevention of waste and emissions. In: Prepare. Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Amsterdam,1, 1–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoogweg, P., Ducrotoy, J. & Wettering, B., 1991. The North Sea Task Force: the first two years. —Mar. Pollut. Bull.22, 328–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huisingh, D., 1989. Cleaner technologies through process modifications, material substitutions and ecologically based ethical values.—Ind. Environ.12, 4–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchingson, G. E., 1961. The paradox of the plankton.—Am. Nat.95, 137–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • ICES Advisory Committee on Marine Pollution (Ed.), 1985. Biological effects studies.—Rep. ICES Advisory Comm. mar. Pollut.1984, 17–21.

  • Irish Sea Study Group (Ed.), 1990. Waste inputs and pollution. Liverpool Univ. Press, Liverpool,2, 1–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, P. & MacGarvin, M., 1989. 0–2000: assimilating lessons from the past.—Greenpeace Rep.28, 1–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, P., MacGarvin, M. & Stringer, R. L., 1990a. Regulation of effluents and implications for environmental policy.—Wat. Sci. Technol.24, 19–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, P., Stringer, R. L. & French, M. C., 1990b. Pollution of UK estuaries: historic and current problems. — Sci. total, Environ.106, 55–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, P., MacGarvin, M., Stringer, R.L. & Troendle, S., 1993. Sewage: towards realistic environmental protection. — Wat. Sci. Technol.27, 481–491.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kareiva, P., 1989. Renewing the dialogue between theory and experiments in population ecology. In: Perspectives in ecological theory. Ed. by J. Roughgarden, R. M. May & S. A. Levin. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, 68–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinne, O., 1994. Ecology of the North Sea: problems, successes, failures, future needs. — Helgoländer Meeresunters.49, 23–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lancelot, C., Billen, G., Sournia, A., Weisse, T., Colijn, C., Veldhuis, M. J. W., Davies, A. & Wassman, P., 1987.Phaeocystis blooms and nutrient enrichment in the continental coastal zones of the North Sea. — Ambio16, 38–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, I. & Olsen, K. O., 1989. Furthering cleaner technology: the role of decentral authorities. In: 1st International Conference on waste minimisation and clean technology. Internat. Public Works Fed. Working Group on Hazardous Wastes, UNEP, Geneva, 250–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawton, J. H., 1991. Ecology as she is done, and could be done. — Oikos61, 289–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, R., 1986. Supply-side ecology. — Science, N.Y.234, 25–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindhquist, T., 1989. The environmental product declaration, EPD. UN ECE Seminar on economic implications of low-waste technology (16–19 Oct. 1989). The Hague, Netherlands. 8 pp. (Paper ENVWA/SEM/R.B)

  • Lothigius, Jan (Ed.), 1991. Toxic organic compounds in the Baltic. — Enviro11, 1–29 (Special issue).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lubchenco, J. & Menge, B. A., 1978. Community diversity and persistence in a low rocky intertidal zone. — Ecol. Monogr.48, 67–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacGarvin, M. & Johnston, P., 1993. On precaution, clean production & paradigm shifts. — Wat. Sci. Technol.27, 469–480.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacGarvin, M. & Johnston, P., 1988. Monitoring annex. In: A submission to the IMSO meeting for the Third North Sea Conference. Greenpeace International, Amsterdam, 27 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mann, K. H. & Lazier, J. R. N., 1991. Dynamics of marine ecosystems: biological-physical interactions in the oceans. Blackwell, Boston, 466 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGowan, J.A. & Walker, P.W., 1979. Structure in the copepod community of the North Pacific central gyre. — Ecol. Monogr.49, 195–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, A. D. & Pearce, J.B., 1980. Foreword. — Rapp. P.-v. Réun. Cons. int. Explor. Mer.179, 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menge, B. A., 1976. Organisation of the New England rocky intertidal community: role of predation, competition and environmental heterogeneity. — Ecol. Monogr.46, 355–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menge, B. A. & Sutherland, J. P., 1976. Species diversity gradients: synthesis of the roles of predation, competition, and temporal heterogeneity. — Am. Nat.110, 351–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naes, A., 1989. Ecology, community and lifestyle: outline of an ecosophy. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 223 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nirmalakhandan, N. & Speece, R. E., 1988. Structure-activity relationships. — Environ. Sci. Technol.22, 606–615

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oslo & Paris Commission (Ed.), 1992a. Convention for the protection of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic. Paris Commission Secretariat, London, 50 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oslo & Paris Commission (Ed.), 1992b. Action plant of the Oslo & Paris Commissions, 1992. Oslo & Paris Commission Secretariat, London, 8 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paine, R. T., 1966. Food web complexity and species diversity. — Am. Nat.100, 65–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paine, R. T., 1971. A short term experimental investigation of resource partitioning in a New Zealand rocky tidal habitat. — Ecology52, 1096–1106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paine, R. T., 1980. Food webs: linkage, interaction strength and community infrastructure. — J. Anim. Ecol.49, 667–685.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paris Commission (Ed.), 1991. Report on land-based inputs of contaminants to the waters of the Paris Convention 1989. Paris Commission, London (PARCOM 13/6/3-E).

  • Pearson, P., 1991. Chlorine is dying: we told you so. — Pulp Paperind.August, 54.

  • Peterman, R. M. & M'Gonigle, M., 1992. Statistical power analysis and the precautionary principle. —Mar. Pollut. Bull.24, 231–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters, R. H., 1991. A critique for ecology. Cambridge Univ. Press. Cambridge, 366 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puckett, J., 1991. Dumping by another name: the recycling of imported hazardous wastes in Bilbao, Spain by the ASER Company. Greenpeace International, Amsterdam, 68 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosander, P. & Fredman, A., 1989. Clean opportunity-without chlorinated solvents. Greenpeace Sweden, Gothenburg, 30 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothschild, B. J., 1986. Dynamics of marine fish populations. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, 277 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roughgarden, J., 1989. The structure and assembly of communities. In: Perspectives in ecological theory. Ed. by J. Roughgarden, R. M. May & S. A. Levin. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, 203–226

    Google Scholar 

  • Roughgarden, J., May, R. M. & Levin, S. A. (Eds), 1989. Perspectives in ecological theory. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salomons, W., 1988. Heavy metal chemicals—an overview. In Environmental protection of the North Sea. Ed. by P. J. Newmann & A. R. Agg. Heinemann, Oxford, 245–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarokin, D. J., Muir, W. R., Miller, C. G. & Sperber, S. R., 1985. Cutting chemical wastes: What 29 organic chemical plants are doing to reduce hazardous wastes. Ed. by P. Stryker & P. Lone. INFORM, New York, 535 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simberloff, D., 1988. The contribution of population and community biology to conservation science. — A Rev. Ecol. Syst.19, 473–511.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, V. J. & Johnston, P. A., 1992. Differential haemotoxic effects of PCB congeners in common shrimpCrangon crangon. — Comp. Biochem. Physiol.101C, 641–649.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sperling, K. R., 1986. Protection of the North Sea: balance and prospects. — Mar. Pollut. Bull.17, 241–246.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stebbing, A. R. D., 1992. Environmental capacity and the precautionary principle. — Mar. Pollut. Bull.24, 287–295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stebbing, A. R. D., Dethlefsen, V. & Thurberg, F., 1990. Report on the ICES/IOC North Sea seagoing workshop. In: North Sea pollution: technical strategies for improvement. IAWPRC/EWPCA/NVA, Amsterdam, 41–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strong, D. R., Simberloff, D., Abele, L. G. & Thistle, A. B. (Eds), 1984. Ecological communities: conceptual issues and the evidence. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, 613 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Ed.), 1988. Waste minimisation opportunity assessment manual. US EPA, Cincinnati, 26 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, A. J., 1985. Physical factors and biological interactions: the necessity and nature of ecological experiments. In: The ecology of rocky coasts. Ed. by P. G. Moore & R. Seed. Hodder & Stoughton, London, 372–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, A. J. & Denley, E. J., 1984. Paradigms, explanations and generalisations in models for the structure of intertidal communities on rocky shores. In: Ecological communities: conceptual issues and the evidence. Ed. by D. R. Strong, D. Simberloff, L. G. Abele & A. B. Thistle. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, 151–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, A., Denley, E. & Moran, M., 1983. Experimental analysis of the structure and dynamics of mid-shore rocky intertidal communities in New South Wales. — Oecologia,56, 202–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNEP Governing Council (Ed.), 1989. Precautionary approach to marine pollution, including waste dumping at sea. In: Proceedings of the fifteenth session, United Nations Governing Council General Council. UNEP, New York,1, 63–65 (UNEP/GC. 15/12).

    Google Scholar 

  • Varley, G. C., Gradwell, G. R. & Hassell, M. P., 1973.Insect population ecology Blackwell, Oxford, 212 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wootton, R. J., 1990. Ecology of teleost-fishes. Chapman & Hall, London, 404 pp.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Consultant to Greenpeace International, Keizersgracht 176, 1016 DW, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    M. MacGarvin

  2. Dpt. of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Culterty Field Station, AB41 0AA, Newburgh, Ellon, Aberdeenshire, UK

    M. MacGarvin

Authors
  1. M. MacGarvin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

MacGarvin, M. The implications of the precautionary principle for biological monitoring. Helgolander Meeresunters 49, 647–662 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02368389

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02368389

Keywords

Helgoland Marine Research

ISSN: 1438-3888

Contact us